Ruins of ancient city Dholavira in Kutch, Gujarat Photo: Shutterstock Ruins of ancient city Dholavira in Kutch, Gujarat Photo: Shutterstock Even as 2024 marked 100 years since the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilisation, debates over its origins continue. Over the decades, there have been multiple claims linking the Harappan civilisation to the Vedic culture, while others have strongly disputed this theory. When archaeologist John Marshall led excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro a century back, he concluded that the religious beliefs of the Harappan people—based on archaeological evidence—were distinct from those of the Indo-Aryans. This discovery disrupted the Hindu nationalist narrative that glorified the Vedic-Sanskritic civilisation as indigenous.
In recent years, excavations at Rakhigarhi and Sinauli have reignited the debate, with some archaeologists arguing that the discoveries prove Aryans were indigenous to India. However, these assertions remain widely contested, as many scholars continue to stress the distinctiveness of Harappan culture.
As history is increasingly viewed through political and religious lenses, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) finds itself at the centre of controversies. Outlook magazine’s latest issue, What ‘Lies’ Beneath, examines how the ASI’s role in shaping historical narratives is now caught in ideological battles.
Here are the key dates from the discovery to the excavation at the many sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation:
What 'Lies' Beneath | Outlook's Next Issue On ASI And Historical Narratives1829 – Charles Masson, then a British soldier in the East India Company Army, began traveling across India, collecting coins and studying ancient ruins. In 1829, while exploring ancient sites, Masson came across the ruins of Harappa but mistakenly attributed its construction to Alexander the Great’s campaign in India.
billionaire casino slots 7771842 – After returning to Britain, Masson published a book detailing his travels and discoveries in the subcontinent, including Harappa. His work attracted the attention of British archaeologists, particularly Alexander Cunningham, who would later investigate the site.
1861 – The British established the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) under Alexander Cunningham.
1875 - Alexander Cunningham led the first recorded excavation at Harappa but, lacking knowledge of its broader context, could not define its origins, though his work paved the way for future discoveries.
1904 - John Marshall became Director-General of the ASI, introducing scientific excavation methods that advanced archaeological research.
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1921 - In 1921, Indian archaeologist Daya Ram Sahni led the first official excavation at Harappa, uncovering the first concrete evidence of the Indus Valley Civilisation, a project he worked on from 1920 to 1922. The 1921 ASI report on Harappa documented findings from the site including structural remains, Harappan seals, pottery, urban planning, and an advanced drainage system.
1924-1925 – John Marshall oversaw further excavations, linking Harappa with another site, Mohenjo-Daro, which was discovered nearby, the discovery led by Rakhal Das Banerji. Recognising their similarities, he identified them as part of a previously unknown civilisation, thus formally discovering the Indus Valley Civilisation.
In the following years and even decades many more sites like Sutkagendor (1929), Chanhudaro (1931), Amri (1935) , Kalibangan (1953), Lothal (1953) , Surkotada (1964) , Banawali (1974) were discovered.
All these years of excavations revealed advanced well-planned streets, drainage systems, and brick structures reshaping views on ancient Indian history.
1947 - Following the Partition of India in 1947, most Indus Valley sites, including Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, became part of the newly formed nation of Pakistan.
In the 1940s, Sir Mortimer Wheeler, Director-General of the ASI (1944–1948), proposed that the Indus Valley Civilisation was conquered by Aryans, interpreting unburied corpses at Mohenjo-Daro as evidence of a violent invasion. After India’s independence, he left the country but played a key role in establishing archaeological institutions in Pakistan before joining a UNESCO initiative to preserve Mohenjo-Daro.
In the 1960s, archaeologist George F. Dales reviewed Wheeler’s theory, visited the sites, and found no evidence of a violent Aryan invasion. The skeletons showed no signs of battle wounds, nor did the cities display war-related damage. Dales also argued that the Indus Valley Civilisation had no direct link to Vedic culture, highlighting the absence of the Indus script in the Vedas.
Post 1960- More excavation sites were added to the listnaga casino, including some major ones like Rakhigarhi in Haryana and Dholavira in Gujarat. Over 1400 Indus Valley civilisation sites have been discovered till date, of which 925 sites are in India and 475 in Pakistan.